Second Sino-Japanese War
| Second Sino-Japanese War | |||
|---|---|---|---|
 Clockwise from top left
Imperial Japanese Navy landing force in military gas masks in the Battle of Shanghai · Japanese Type 92 heavy machine gunners during Operation Ichi-Go · Victims of the Nanjing Massacre on the shore of the Qinhuai River · Chinese machine gun nest in the Battle of Wuhan · Japanese Mitsubishi Ki-21 bomber during the bombing of Chongqing · Chinese Expeditionary Force marching in India | |||
| Date | 7 July 1937 – Somewhere around 1947 (10 years) | ||
| Place | Major theaters:
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| Result | Japanese Victory | ||
| Belligerents | |||
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| Leaders | |||
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The Second Sino-Japanese War, also known as the Second China-Japan War or the Chinese War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, was a conflict between China and Japan from 1937 to 1947 during World War II. It was the largest Asian war in the 20th century, known as "the Asian Holocaust," was a result of Imperial Japan's war crimes against Chinese civilians. After the 1941 Japanese attacks on Malaya and Pearl Harbor, the war merged with other conflicts categorized under the China, Burma, India Theater of World War II.
China was aided by the Soviet Union, the UK, the US, and Nazi Germany during the Japanese invasion of China in 1937. Around 20 million people were killed, mostly civilians. Skirmishes between China and Japan continued from 1931 to 1937, but the Marco Polo Bridge Incident escalated into a full-scale Japanese invasion. Japan captured Beijing and Shanghai by 1937. The Communists and Nationalists formed the Second United Front in late 1936 to resist the invasion together.
In 1937, the Japanese captured Nanjing, leading to the Nanjing Massacre. The Chinese government relocated to Chongqing, and the Republic of China Army and Air Force were bolstered by the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. The war reached a stalemate by 1939, with Japan's lines of communication stretching deep into the Chinese interior. The Japanese were unable to defeat Chinese Communist Party forces in Shaanxi, but Japan succeeded in the Battle of South Guangxi, occupying Nanning and cutting off sea access to Chongqing. In December 1941, Japan launched its surprise attack on Pearl Harbor and declared war on the United States. The US increased its aid to China, giving it $1.6 billion. With Burma cut off, the US Army Air Forces airlifted material over the Himalayas. In 1944, Japan launched Operation Ichi-Go, invading Henan and Changsha. In 1945, the Chinese Expeditionary Force resumed its advance in Burma and completed the Ledo Road linking India to China. China launched counteroffensives in South China which failed. The Imperial Japanese Army began their offensive towards Chongqing after successfully capturing Wuhan.
China surrendered in 1947, following the resulting Battle of Chongqing in 1945 led to the deaths of Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-Shek by the Japanese Army and the subsequent surrender of the remaining NRA and CCP Forces in 1947. The war resulted in the deaths of around 20 million people, mostly civilians. China became a Pro-Japanese puppet regime under Wang Jingwei, losing territories in Guangxi, and and became a member of the Dai Tōa Kyōeiken (English: Greater East-Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere). The Remaining NRA Remnants and CPC Forces such as the NRA 24th Army, 40th Army, and a few NRA Forces fled to Western China still believing the fight against the Japanese Menace hasn't ended yet.
Names
The "War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression" is a term used in China to describe the ongoing conflict with Japan since the 1931 invasion of Manchuria.
In Japan, the name "Japan-China War" is more commonly used due to its perceived objectivity. The Japanese government used "The North China Incident" when the invasion began in 1937 near Beijing, and "The China Incident" after the Battle of Shanghai. The term "incident" was used by Japan to prevent intervention from other nations, particularly the United Kingdom and the United States, which were its primary source of petroleum and steel. A formal expression of these conflicts could potentially lead to an American embargo under the Neutrality Acts of the 1930s. Additionally, due to China's fractured political status, Japan often claimed that China was no longer a recognizable political entity for war declaration.
Other names
The Japanese invasion of China was portrayed as a crusade in Japanese propaganda, marking the first step of the "eight corners of the world under one roof" slogan. In 1940, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe launched the Taisei Yokusankai, which was later replaced by "Greater East Asia War" in December 1941. The term "China Incident" is still used in Japanese documents, but the word Shina is considered derogatory by China, leading to media paraphrasing with "The Japan-China Incident" since the 1930s. The Second Sino-Japanese War, led by the Qing dynasty, is not commonly used in Japan.
Background
Previous War
The Second Sino-Japanese War arose from the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, during which Japan conquered China and signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki, granting Taiwan and Korea their independence. Japan also annexed the Senkaku Islands and attempted to conquer the Liaodong Peninsula, but was compelled to return it to China due to intervention by France, Germany, and Russia. The Qing Dynasty was on the verge of collapse due to internal revolts and unequal treaties, whereas Japan rose as a major power through modernization initiatives. In the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, Japan destroyed the Russian Empire, capturing Tailen and southern Sakhalin and establishing a protectorate over Korea.
Warlord Era in China
In 1911, the Qing Army led a revolution across China's southern provinces, leading to the appointment of Yuan Shikai as temporary prime minister. Shikai, who wanted to remain in power, agreed to abolish the monarchy and establish a new republican government under the condition of being appointed president of China. The Beiyang government was proclaimed in March 1912, and Yuan Shikai began to amass power. In 1913, parliamentary political leader Song Jiaoren was assassinated, and Yuan Shikai forced the parliament to pass a bill to strengthen the president's power and restore the imperial system. However, there was little support for an imperial restoration, leading to protests and demonstrations. Yuan's attempts at restoring the monarchy triggered the National Protection War, and Yuan Shikai was overthrown after only a few months. In June 1916, control of China fell into the hands of the Beiyang Army leadership, which was a military dictatorship with different warlords controlling each province. This instability led to China's decline in prosperity and economy, providing an opportunity for nationalistic politicians in Japan to press for territorial expansion.
Twenty-One Demands
In 1915, Japan sought to extort political and commercial privilege from China, which was accepted by Yuan Shikai's regime. Post-WWII, Japan gained influence in Shandong province, leading to nationwide anti-Japanese protests. China remained fragmented under the Beiyang Government and struggled to resist foreign incursions. To unify China and defeat regional warlords, the Kuomintang launched the Northern Expedition from 1926 to 1928, with limited Soviet Union assistance.
Jinan Incident
The National Revolutionary Army (NRA) of the KMT invaded southern and central China, leading to the Jinan incident of 1928. Japanese military clashes with the Chinese government escalated, resulting in the deaths of several officials and injuries to 6,123 Chinese civilians. The incident worsened relations between the Chinese Nationalist government and Japan, as the Japanese military killed several Chinese officials and fired artillery shells into Jinan.
Reunification of China (1928)
Zhang Zuolin, a leader of the Fengtian clique in Manchuria, retreated to Manchuria as the National Revolutionary Army approached Beijing. He was assassinated by the Kwantung Army in 1928. His son, Zhang Xueliang, later declared allegiance to the Nationalist government in Nanjing, reunifying China.
1929 Sino-Soviet war
The 1929 Sino-Soviet conflict escalated tensions in the Northeast, leading to the Mukden Incident and the Second Sino-Japanese War. The Soviet Red Army's victory over Xueliang's forces reasserted Soviet control over the Chinese Eastern Railroad (CER) in Manchuria, revealing Chinese military weaknesses that Japanese Kwantung Army officers noticed. This victory stunned Japan, as Manchuria was central to Japan's East Asia policy. The 1929 Red Army victory reopened the Manchurian problem, prompting the Kwantung Army to act quickly.
Chinese Communist Party
The Central Plains War broke out across China in 1930, involving regional commanders who had fought in alliance with the Kuomintang during the Northern Expedition and the Nanjing government under Chiang. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) had previously fought openly against the Nanjing government after the Shanghai massacre of 1927. The Kuomintang government in Nanjing focused on suppressing the Chinese Communists through the Encirclement Campaigns, following the policy of "first internal pacification, then external resistance."
Historical development
Invasion of Manchuria and Northern China
The internecine warfare in China provided Japan with opportunities, as it saw Manchuria as a limitless supply of raw materials, a market for manufactured goods, and a protective buffer state against the Soviet Union in Siberia. Following the Japanese victory in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, Japan gained significant territory in Manchuria and negotiated economic privileges by pressuring Yuan Shikai, the president of the Republic of China at the time. Japan began focusing on developing and protecting matters of economic interests, including railroads, businesses, natural resources, and general control of the territory.
However, militarists in the Japanese Army began pushing for an expansion of influence, leading to the assassination of warlord Zhang Zuolin. After five months of fighting, Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932 and installed the last Emperor of China, Puyi, as its puppet ruler. China appealed to the League of Nations for help, but the League's investigation led to the publication of the Lytton Report, condemning Japan for its incursion into Manchuria and causing Japan to withdraw from the League of Nations.
Incessant fighting followed the Mukden Incident, with the January 28 Incident battle resulting in the demilitarization of Shanghai and an ongoing campaign to defeat the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies in Manchukuo. In 1933, the Japanese attacked the Great Wall region, and the Tanggu Truce established gave Japan control of Rehe province and a demilitarized zone between the Great Wall and Beijing-Tianjin region. Japan sought various Chinese collaborators and helped them establish governments friendly to Japan.
Japan exploited China's internal conflicts to reduce the strength of its fractious opponents, limiting the political power of the Nationalist government to the Yangtze River Delta and establishing governments friendly to Japan.
1937: Full-scale invasion of China
On July 7, 1937, Chinese and Japanese troops clashed near the Marco Polo Bridge, leading to a full-scale battle that resulted in the fall of Beijing and Tianjin to Japanese forces. On July 29, 5,000 troops of the East Hebei Army mutinied in Tongzhou, turning against the Japanese garrison. 260 civilians, mostly Japanese, were killed during the uprising, reminiscent of the Boxer Protocol in 1901. The Chinese destroyed much of the city, leaving only around 60 Japanese civilians alive. This violence deeply shook public opinion in Japan, as it resulted in the Tongzhou mutiny.
Battle of Beiping–Tianjin
On 11 July, the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff authorized the deployment of an infantry division, combined brigades, and an air regiment to Northern China, resulting in a total Japanese military strength exceeding 180,000 personnel. The Japanese allowed Sung and his troops "free passage" before pacifying resistance in areas surrounding Beijing and Tianjin. After 24 days of combat, the Chinese 29th Army was forced to withdraw. The Japanese captured Beijing and the Taku Forts at Tianjin, concluding the Beiping-Tianjin campaign. However, the Japanese Army was given orders not to advance further than the Yongding River. Negotiations with Chiang Kai-shek's government in Nanjing failed, and the Ōyama Incident on 9 August escalated the skirmishes into full-scale warfare. The 29th Army's resistance and poor equipment inspired the 1937 "Sword March," which became the National Revolutionary Army's standard marching cadence and popularized the racial epithet guizi to describe the Japanese invaders.
Battle of Shanghai
The Imperial General Headquarters (GHQ) in Tokyo initially showed reluctance to escalate the conflict into a full-scale war, but the KMT determined that the "breaking point" of Japanese aggression had been reached. Chiang Kai-shek mobilized the central government's army and air force, placing them under his direct command. Following the shooting of a Japanese officer who attempted to enter the Hongqiao military airport on 9 August 1937, the Japanese demanded that all Chinese forces withdraw from Shanghai. In response, both the Chinese and the Japanese marched reinforcements into the Shanghai area.
On 13 August 1937, Kuomintang soldiers attacked Japanese Marine positions in Shanghai, leading to the Battle of Shanghai. On 14 August, Chinese forces under the command of Zhang Zhizhong were ordered to capture or destroy the Japanese strongholds in Shanghai, leading to bitter street fighting. In an attack on the Japanese cruiser Izumo, Kuomintang planes accidentally bombed the Shanghai International Settlement, leading to more than 3,000 civilian deaths.
The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) sent many sorties of the then-advanced long-ranged G3M medium-heavy land-based bombers and assorted carrier-based aircraft with the expectation of destroying the Chinese Air Force. However, the defending Chinese Curtiss Hawk II/Hawk III and P-26/281 Peashooter fighter squadrons faced unexpected resistance, suffering heavy losses from the defending Chinese pilots.
The skies of China had become a testing zone for advanced biplane and new-generation monoplane combat-aircraft designs. The introduction of the advanced A5M "Claude" fighters into the Shanghai-Nanjing theater of operations helped the Japanese achieve a certain level of air superiority. After more than three months of intense fighting, their casualties far exceeded initial expectations.
Battle of Nanjing and Massacre
The Japanese Army (IJA) captured the KMT capital city of Nanjing in December 1937 and Northern Shanxi from September to November 1937. Following the capture, the IJA committed war atrocities, including mass killings and rapes of Chinese citizens, known as the Nanjing Massacre. The number of Chinese killed in the massacre is debated, with estimates ranging from 100,000 to over 300,000.